Monday, May 31, 2010

Repair Credit Rating - Used Car Loans Easily Accessed With a Repaired Credit Rating

You are driving to work when you hear a clunk in your engine. Your car stops and refuses to start. You hail a cab to get to your office and get your car checked by a mechanic. Your mechanic tells you something that makes you think of only one thing- I need to repair credit rating as early as possible.

What did your mechanic say? You were probably informed that you will have to go in for a replacement automobile. Since new automobiles are out of the question, you will have to go in for a used car. You probably don't have sufficient cash in hand to pay for a used car. You probably have to go in for a used car loan.

With your credit cards maxed and repayments being made on an irregular basis, you will find it very difficult to get affordable used car loans. Your lender will probably require a very high down payment and will continue to charge high interest rates because of your poor credit rating. You will either have to put your finances under a lot of strain or you will have to go in for a less expensive used car.

Why don't you take the third alternative and improve your finances? Why don't you repair credit rating so that you can qualify for affordable loans?

Take a look at your credit history and credit rating to determine whether you are a safe bet or not. This rule applies to all lenders including those offering loans for used cars. You should try to repair your credit rating by going in for the advice of professionals as early as possible. Trying to repair credit rating because you want to qualify for affordable loans a few months or a few years from now and doing so because you want to qualify for affordable loans immediately are two different things.

In case of the latter option, you will have to take remedial actions immediately. Not only do you need credit relief but you also need it with the immediate effect. This means that the advice of professionals would prove very useful.

Next, you should plan ahead and focus on repayment of the car loan in a prompt manner. If you get an affordable car driven but if you are not in a position to repay the debt on time, chances are high that your credit score will continue to fall and you will continue to pay high interest loans.

Sunday, May 30, 2010

Car Repair Coupons - 4 Types of Repairs to Save On

Car repair coupons are essentially like free money. Every car needs a certain amount of regular maintenance and repairs: oil changes and tune ups to keep it running its best, and replacement parts such as tires, brakes, batteries, and alternators as the old parts wear out. Since you already have to pay for these repairs anyway, these should be used to knock the cost of regular maintenance down a little.

Car repair coupons can be found in a lot of different places. Local auto repair shops often place advertisements and coupons in local newspapers, magazines, and other publications. Online coupon sites, such as Valpak are also a great resource for coupon clippers. Finally, many shops send out their own mailings or post their current specials right on their website. Here are the four types you are most likely to find.

1: Oil changes are the most frequent type of maintenance cars need. By about three thousand miles, the oil and oil filter in your engine start to wear out. Replacing the oil and filter regularly keeps your engine running smoothly, prevents harmful buildup inside your engine, and even helps to maintain optimal gas mileage. Dirty oil, on the other hand, creates buildup that can damage the engine, leads to dried-out and leaky seals and gaskets, and creates more resistance on the engine as it thickens -- causing your fuel bill to increase too.

Since oil changes are needed so frequently, there are tons of auto repair shops and quick lube places ready to compete for your business. Because of this, shops almost always include a coupon for a discounted oil change.

2: Tune Ups. After oil changes, tune ups are the next most common repair that car owners have to do: Tune ups typically should be done once a year, or every twenty or thirty thousand miles, depending on the manufacturer's recommendations. A tune up typically includes replacing the air filter, the spark plugs, PCV valve, and the distributor cap and rotor; some parts only need to be replaced every two or three years, such as the oxygen sensor and the spark plug wires. The mechanic will also visually inspect the car's various systems to make sure everything is functioning correctly.

All of the potential replacements can make tune ups very expensive, particularly if the mechanic finds something wrong. Auto shops will give you a discount on at least the basic tune up, so that if something else turns out to be wrong, at least the bill won't hit you quite as hard.

3: Wheel alignment is another one of those things that you should have checked regularly. Most auto repair shops offer an inexpensive wheel alignment check that will tell you if you need your wheel alignment done. Proper wheel alignment produces the least amount of rolling resistance on your car, ensuring that you get the optimum gas mileage; it also causes the entire tread of the tires to make contact with the road as you drive, which spreads the wear out along the entire tread and helps your tires to last longer.

With the expensive but very precise equipment most repair shops use these days, wheel alignments can be pretty expensive. To compete with one another for your business, many repair shops will issue alignment coupons periodically, often offering a significant discount off the normal price.

4: New Tires. With the length of the average commute these days, most people end up needing to buy new tires every couple of years. Since tires can be pretty expensive, many tire shops and service centers send out mailings and print them in local papers. If you know you will need tires soon, be on the lookout for these coupons.

There are many other types of car repair coupons than the four listed above. These are just the most common. You'll notice as you hunt for coupons that you also find some for replacement windshields, bodywork, and even general repairs. In fact, it's not uncommon to find a coupon from an auto repair shop that simply states dollars off for any repair work made over a certain amount spent. You'll find that looking for discounts is like an Easter egg hunt. The coupons are all right there under your nose; you just have to look for them.

Saturday, May 29, 2010

Choosing an Auto Upholstery Repair Shop

To some people, a car is like a second home on wheels. It has all the amenities: air conditioning, music, and nice comfortable seats.

Yeah, the seats. They can really make the car comfortable. And then there are the floor mats and the other parts of the car's cabin.

But what happens when something happens to the inside of your car? What happens when your auto upholstery tears, rips or is stained? Well, you take your car to a good auto upholstery repair shop. There are plenty of these shops. Here's what you should know before choosing one.

Because it takes a lot of time and effort to repair seat covers, tops, and car upholstery, many shops may increase their prices. Also, for the same reason, many shops may take shortcuts when it comes to quality.

So you have to be careful. Auto upholstery isn't necessarily an easy business. But It's necessary. Everyone loves to have great looking auto upholstery.

Since many shops can cut costs and quality, it's important to know that auto upholstery is all about precision. It takes detailed work to determine the right fit and look for your car.

Furthermore, often there are certain materials that go into the making of the material that covers your car's seats. Many of the cars driven today use dense foam as a batting for the car seats. This foam makes the seats last a long time.

You want to look for an auto upholstery repair shop that can give you a selection of densities and chemical compositions.

You also want to make sure the person who will be working on your seat covers, top or auto upholstery is very knowledgeable about the work he or she will be doing. Take the time to question that person about the materials and chemicals that go into making the batting for the seats. Ask the person if they know how to work with the make and model of your car.

And while it's true that 'you want to consider costs when choosing an auto upholstery repair shops, you don't want to skimp on quality. That means you may want to take the time to really compare auto upholstery repair shops. Get a real feel for what a few shops have to offer its customers.

Lastly, if you have any stains in your car, discuss them with an auto upholstery repair shop owner. That way you'll know what kind of cleaning supplies or dry cleaning services they have on hand. Since dry cleaning can increase the price of auto upholstery services, you'll have a better idea of what to expect if you discuss your stain issues upfront. Then compare prices for the different repair shops.

Friday, May 28, 2010

Do It Yourself Auto Repair: What You Need To Know

This article answers some of the questions asked
by car owners or would be Do It Yourselfers on Do It
Yourself Auto Repair.

What is DIY or Do It Yourself Auto Repair:
This is a maintenance system where a vehicle owner carry
out specific repair works on his/her car. The repair
work can be major or minor.

Can anybody carry out Do It Yourself Auto
Repair:
Yes, anybody old enough to own a car, and
calm - headed enough to follow some sets of repair
instructions can successfully carry out Do It Yourself
Auto Repair.

It does not require deep knowledge of engineering
or mechanism, just the ability to believe in yourself
and follow instructions.

What are the requirements for Do it yourself auto
repair:
The following are the basic requirements,
which may be more, depending on the repair job to be
done.


A good auto repair manual.
Set of tools.
Auto parts for replacement.
Calmness and determination.
Time.

From manual you can get all the requirements and the
procedures.

Where Can Do It Yourself Auto Repair be carried out:
Anywhere there is space. preferably in a place where
there is privacy and where you are shielded from
sun, rain, etc.

Can I get help for Do It Yourself Auto Repair jobs when
I needed one:
Yes you can get a real life help if you
register with a good auto repair site and/or auto repair
forum for car owners.

There you meet car owners like yourself sharing their
experiences in Do It Yourself Auto Repair job and their
failures too, you learn a lot and avoid many pitfalls.
What are the benefits of Do It Yourself Auto Repair: you
stand to gain a lot in Do it Yourself Auto Repair, Some
benefits includes:

Reduction in repair and maintenance cost.

Self Satisfaction in carrying out your repair works.
Better understanding of your car system and operations.
Opportunity to meet/chart with other car owners,
share ideas and gain from their experiences.
Ability to gain total control over your car.

The total benefit of Do it Yourself Auto Repair cannot
be generalized it depends on where an individual is
starting from and his background knowledge. You really
see it when you start.

What is the rate of success in Do It Yourself Auto
Repair:
The rate of success figure is not constant, for
it depends on individual knowledge and what he has

committed to it.

But a lot of people have been recording
success, this you can find out in DIY forum sites. even
people that started as a complete novice.

The important things to hold to record success is,
having the right tools equipment and starting/doing your
Do it Yourself Auto Repair jobs rightly. This I can show

you.

You may have many more questions not answered here, but
you don't need to know all answers before you start,
just a step-by-step guide. if others have been doing it
then you can do it.

Why not start right now.

Thursday, May 27, 2010

My Experience Using Seized Car Auctions

In my experience I have found that a lot of people are intimidated by seized car auctions. I usually try to allay those fears. There is nothing to be afraid of a car auction. You should not feel like you have to hold back perhaps because you are not entitled to go. This attitude I found in many people. But generously I think I'm writing this article to help people to use vehicle auctions. So to do this I would like to give you my experience going to car auctions. I'd also like to explain how they help me. Perhaps this will help you to get a good viewpoint of car auctions.

The first time that I used a vehicle auction I was looking for a 1999 Honda Accord. I can't recall the exact price that I was finding at car dealerships and in classified ads. It was somewhere in the neighborhood of $10,000. I knew I could never afford to pay that much for that car. I needed to find something different. That's one of friend help me find repo auctions in my area to attend. I was a little like you, not sure what to expect.

How shocked I was to find the exact car I wanted flying off the holding lots for at least half off the price that they were going for at dealerships and in the classified ads. My eyes grew bigger. I had found what I was looking for! By the end of the day I had a Honda Accord for about $3000. It was in 1999 model just like I wanted and red.

This really opened my eyes to car auctions. So I decided to go again to buy another car. My intention this time was to resell it. So I got a similar vehicle, a Toyota Camry. I ended up selling that car to my cousin that next week at a price that he thought I was losing money on. Actually earning $3000 on that sale! So from then on I have used car auctions to make a living.

Wednesday, May 26, 2010

Auto Air Conditioning Repair 101

When your car or truck A/C is not blowing "cold air", the first thought is to panic. $$$$ signs are going through your mind. Your A/C is broken and the repair is going to be expensive. This article takes the mystery out of automotive air conditioning and serves as a primer so that you can make common repairs yourself and save MONEY on professional repairs.

A/C Principles

There are books and publications that contain volumes of information on the subject of air conditioning repair. This information is often too technical for the you to learn how-to fix your auto air conditioning system.

In the nutshell, here is all that you need to know about the fundamentals of refrigeration so that you can fix your auto air conditioning system yourself.

Air conditioning is the process in which air inside the passenger compartment is cooled, dried, and circulated. Heat is removed from inside the vehicle and transferred to the outside air.

All air conditioners whether, it is an auto A/C, household refrigerator or home HVAC, work on the same principles. Namely, a liquid refrigerant is changed to a gas and then back to a liquid. If a change-of-state of the refrigerant is to take place, heat transfer must take place. The two (2) rules that apply to refrigerant are:

1. Refrigerant in a gaseous state collects, absorbs, and holds heat.
2. Refrigerant in a liquid state releases that heat.

A/C Operation and Components

For your auto A/C to blow "cold air", R-134A refrigerant must pass through and change state in three (3) components, one (1) receiver-dryer, and one (1) expansion valve that makes up the closed auto air conditioning system. The components of the system are:

1. Compressor - A device that pressurizes the heated refrigerant..

2. Condenser - A radiator for refrigerant that transfers the heat that was absorbed in the passenger compartment to the cooler air.

3. Evaporator - Is a small radiator located under dash in the passenger compartment. Liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator creates a pressure loss. The liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from the air blowing across the evaporator. It then boils and changes state to vapor before it enters the suction port of the compressor.

4. Receiver-Dryer - Is a canister that stores the liquid refrigerant when the compressor is not running. It contains a desiccant that removes moisture from the system.

5. Expansion Valve - Is a metering device that controls the amount of refrigerant to the evaporator.

A/C Quick Check

A check that can easily be made to check the health of the A/C system is the "feel check". With engine running, turn the auto A/C control to "ON" and the blower on "high". Take a test drive to warm the engine until the A/C system pressures stabilize. Raise the hood. With the A/C "On", locate the large tubing connected and routed from the compressor (low side) to the expansion valve (inlet side) of the evaporator. Next, locate the small tubing that is connected to the discharge-side of the compressor and routed to the outlet side of the evaporator. When you feel these two (2) lines, you should observe these results:

1. The low-side line should feel "cool" to the touch.
2. The high-side line should feel "warm" to the touch.

If the high-side tubing is not warm and the low-side is not cool, further tests will have to be made as the system is not doing any work. There is an internal problem; such as, a defective component or a leak in your A/C system.

Testing A/C System

Before system temperature tests can be made, a checklist should be followed (below) to setup for testing the A/C system:

1. Set the A/C "ON-OFF" switch to "ON".
2. Set the temperature control to "maximum cooling".
3. Set the blower on "high" or the highest number on the control switch.
4. Temperature inside passenger compartment should be stable and getting cooler.
5. Engine speed must be a minimum of 1500 rpm's.
6. All windows should be be in the "UP" position.

Check Temperature

Your compact car or truck has a small capacity A/C system and a loss of "cooling" would be more noticeable than a larger capacity auto A/C system. If a noticeable loss of "cooling" capacity is noticed, a temperature check at the vent registers should be made. This check can be made with an instant read or digital temperature thermometer.. The discharge air from the vents in the passenger compartment should range from 38 to 42 degrees F.

A/C System Diagnosis

Assuming that the discharge air test measured at the vent registers is out-of-range, a system pressure test will have to be made. Professional A/C technicians connect a tool known as the manifold gauge set to the "low" and "high" side service valves of the system. For you to diagnose and look inside the A/C, it will be necessary to become proficient in the use of the manifold gauge set.

A manifold gauge set that is suitable for the needs can be purchased at most auto supply stores and Internet A/C tool and supply store fronts for less than $50.00. TIP: Look for a gauge set that has a built-in sight glass.

Locate the "low" and "high" side service valves.. Connect the hoses (they are a snap connector fit) to the service valves in the following manner:.

1. Connect the blue hose of the gauge set to the "low-side" service valve of the compressor.
2. Connect the red hose of the gauge set to the "high-side service valve of the compressor.
3. The yellow hose of the gauge set is connected to a vacuum pump or a refrigerant can to add refrigerant to the system. The yellow hose is not connected to the system at this time.

Static Test

If you find an out-of-range temperature reading, the manifold gauge set should be installed on the "low" and "high-side" service valves. With the engine "OFF" and the compressor and clutch not engaged, the blue "low-side" and red "high-side" gauges should show equal readings of approximately 80 to 120psi. These readings would indicate that there is a refrigerant charge in your A/C system. If the readings were 50psi on each gauge, this would indicate that there is refrigerant in the system but a LOW CHARGE. If the readings were 10 to 20psi on each gauge would indicate that there is little or no refrigerant in your A/C system.

Engine Running Test

Start the engine,.turn the A/C switch"ON" with the blower on "high" and run for a minimum of fifteen (15) minutes. Observe the reading on the manifold gauge set. TIP: A manifold gauge set with a built-in sight glass (mentioned above) will save you diagnostic time as most A/C systems do not have a sight glass built-in the receiver-dryer on the high side of the system.

With this feature, you look for bubbling refrigerant oil and refrigerant in the sight glass on the manifold. Oil moving through the glass would indicate that the compressor and clutch are engaged. Refrigerant is being moved from the low-side throughout the A/C system in the refrigeration cycle.

Low Charge

With the engine running, A/C switch "ON", and the manifold gauge set installed, a "low-side" pressure reading of 20psi over 150psi would indicate that your A/C system has a LOW CHARGE. The low reading of 150psi on the "high-side" gauge would be the tell tale that the system is doing very little work. A LOW CHARGE usually is an indicator that there is a refrigerant leak from a component on the "low" or "high-side" of the A/C system. A refrigerant leak in the system would have to be repaired for the A/C system to blow "cold air". TIP: REFRIGERANT DOES NOT WEAR OUT, IT LEAKS OUT. Some symptoms to look for a LOW CHARGE condition are:

1. Compressor clutch short cycling.
2. Clutch will not engage.
3. Little or no cooling.
4. Oily residue on hoses and components.

Leak Checking

For your A/C system to blow "cold air", refrigerant leaks will have to be found and repaired. Usually, leaks in an A/C system are minor and can be fixed with a screwdriver or hand tools. Most A/C systems use schrader valves for easy connection of the manifold gauge set. That said, these are no more than overgrown bicycle valves that use a valve core. When you are checking a system, the valves are the first place check for a leak. Other targets; such as, oil residue on hoses connected to the compressor is the second place that should be checked. TIP: When tightening the bolts to the suction and discharge ports of the compressor with hand tools, do not over tighten. Rubber 0-rings are placed on the suction and discharge ports of the compressor for sealing. The seals will create a leak when over tightened. Only tighten snug.

When your A/C system has a LOW CHARGE, a refrigerant charge will have to added to check for the leak. Refrigerant that contains a dye for leak checking a system is used for this purpose. The manifold gauge set, refrigerant, and a can tap valve will be needed to add refrigerant to check for a leak in the system.

Connect the manifold gauge set as discussed above. Connect the yellow hose to the can tap valve and front seat (turn clockwise) the valve. Close the blue gauge on the manifold gauge set. Open the valve on the can tap valve. Slowly open the valve on the blue or "low-side" gauge and let the refrigerant flow from the refrigerant can into the system until you see a reading of 60psi on the "low-side" gauge. TIP: Placing the refrigerant can in a pan of hot water will allow the vapor refrigerant to enter the A/C system quicker. WARNING: Do not invert the refrigerant can. Doing so will allow liquid refrigerant to enter the system resulting in a ruined compressor.

Professional A/C technicians use an electronic leak detector to find leaks in an system. Use a battery-powered UV leak detector kit and special UV glasses. This kit can be purchased at auto supply stores and Internet A/C supply store fronts.

The UV glasses should be worn when checking for leaks. Simply place the tip of the detector on a fitting or connection to each component to be checked in the A/C system. When a leak is found, a light greenish color will be seen through the UV glasses.

Air Flow

An often overlooked cause of your A/C system not blowing "cold air" is debris that clogs the condenser. Bugs, plastic bags, and leaves from city and highway driving will prevent air from passing through the fins of the condenser. The condenser should be cleaned with a cleaning solvent. Bent fins on the condenser should be straightened with a fin comb.

Restrictions

A restriction is a condition that is a blockage. Usually, it is traced to the outlet side of the condenser. Some form of debris has formed causing a restriction of refrigerant flow through the condenser tubes.. The passages in the tubes of most condensers that are used in compact cars and trucks are very small. An effective way to diagnose a restriction in your A/C system is the manifold gauge set. The "high-side" (red) gauge would move into the DANGER zone, over 300psi.

System Repairs

When a system has been opened, and a component removed, moisture has entered the system. For your A/C to blow "cold air", that moisture will have to be removed with the aid of a vacuum pump.

At this stage of the repair, you have two (2) choices to finish the repair of your A/C system. The first choice is take the car or truck to an A/C professional. At their shop, they will evacuate the system, check your work, and recharge the A/C system for a fee.

The second choice is to repair your A/C system yourself. You will need to borrow or buy a vacuum pump to finish the repair. A small 2-stage vacuum pump that is designed for automobile refrigeration systems is available for less than $100.00.

After replacing a component, moisture has entered the system during the repair. For the A/C system to blow "cold air" the moisture will have to be removed. Install the manifold gauge set to your car or truck service valves as described above. After repairs, your A/C system is evacuated and recharged by applying the below steps:

1. Blue hose to the "low-side" service valve.

2. Red hose to the "high-side service valve.

3. Yellow hose to the suction port of the vacuum pump.

4. Close the hand valve to the vacuum pump.

5. Back seat (open) the hand valves on the blue and red gauges of the manifold gauge set.

6. Connect the electrical power to the vacuum pump.

7. Open the hand valve on the vacuum pump.

8. Run the vacuum pump for three (3) minutes.

9. The needle on the "low-side" gauge (blue) show should be in a vacuum at 28.3hg.

10. A system with no leaks will pull a vacuum of 28.3hg in three (3) minutes.

11. If the needle of the blue gauge did not fall to 28.3hg, the evacuation will have to be aborted as there is a leak in your car or truck A/C system.

12. The leak will have to be found in the A/C system using the UV detector and UV glasses.

13. Once the leak has been found and repaired, continue the evacuation steps as described above for 25 minutes.

14. Front seat (close) the hand valves on the blue and red gauges and observe the needle on the blue gauge.

15. The needle should hold steady at 29hg, indicating a tight system with no leaks.

16. Any needle movement toward "0" on the blue "low-side" gauge would indicate a leak in the system and the evacuation would have to be aborted and conduct a search for the leak.

16.Look in the owners manual or service manual for the factory recommended refrigerant charge. It is usually from 16 to 28 ounces.

17.Attach the can tap valve to a can of refrigerant Make sure that the tap valve hand valve is front seated (closed).

18. Turn the A/C control switch to the "ON" position and blower switch to "high".

19. Start the engine and run at 1500rpm's.

20. Place the refrigerant can in a pan of hot water. Warning: Do not invert the can for this process as liquid would enter the system and ruin the reed valves of the compressor.

21. Continue this process until the factory charge (approximately 2 1/2 cans) has entered the system.

22. Shutoff your car or truck engine and let the A/C system stabilize. When the readings on the red and blue gauges are equal, remove the blue "low-side" hose from the service valve.

23. Restart the engine and remove the red "high-side" hose from the service valve.

24. Close the hood and take your car or truck for a three (3) mile test drive.

25. Place an instant read or digital thermometer in the vent register in the passenger compartment.

26. The temperature should range from 38 to 42 degrees F on a 90-degree day.

Tools and Materials

1. Manifold gauge set
2. Vacuum pump
3. Hand tools
4. Battery powered UV leak detector
5. Can tap valve
6. 134A refrigerant dye
7. 134A refrigerant
8. Instant read temperature thermometer
9. Digital temperature thermometer

Tuesday, May 25, 2010

Rebuild Your Engine Or Purchase a New Car?

For car owners, one of the worst things that can happen is that their engine blows out. If you have an older car and have been used to not having to make car payments, this can be doubly troubling because in many cases, it means that it's time to go out and purchase a new car. However, further investigation shows that this may not necessarily be the case. There are other options besides getting rid of the car and buying a new one. One of those options includes getting the engine rebuilt. In some cases this makes sense, in other cases, it does not. What one needs to do is take a close look at their situation and see which way makes best financially.

The advantage of using a rebuilt engine instead of purchasing a new car is obviously, not having to make car payments every month. Other advantages include the high quality of a re-built engine. They can be just as good, if not better, than the original one. They are also friendlier for the environment because they use recycled parts, and they have to be compliant with pollution standards. They also typically come with short warranties. So individuals can have any problems that come up, fixed.

If one's car is in pretty good shape and the only problem is the engine, then it may be good idea to simply purchase a rebuilt engine instead of buying a new vehicle. Because new cars often come up with unexpected costs, depreciate very fast, have more expensive insurance rates and taxes, it can be much cheaper to simply replace the engine instead of going out and purchasing a new car. Engines that are rebuilt also then get better gas mileage and this is even more advantageous considering the price of gas these days.

If one considers only price, they will find that a new car can be very expensive, especially when you consider all of the above costs. Suddenly, the $2500-$3000 that is necessary to get an engine re-built, doesn't seem as steep. Again, this is only the case, if you are confident they your car is in pretty good shape and the only problem is engine.

Depending on whether or not you are good with cars, you can rebuild the engine yourself and install it in your car. For those that have no desire do so, they can have it rebuilt professionally and it typically comes with a warranty that covers 12,000 miles or one-year. You will find some warranties that will cover the car for either three years or 36,000 miles. The best way to find a really good deal is to simply call around.

Discovering that one's engine has suddenly failed can be very distressing, especially if you really can't afford to be without a car. You will need to decide if you need to replace your car or if you simply need to get the engine rebuilt. A lot of this will be dependent upon the shape of the car and the cost of the repairs, as well as how much it will cost to purchase a new or used vehicle. It basically comes down to dollars and cents and what makes more sense financially for a particular individual.